Elections have, over the years, proven to be the most popular and significant conduit for filling public office across the world. According to the UNDP (2004), elections are the only tool that offers citizens participation in policy-making in the country. Electing Members of Parliament to represent their individual constituencies in a legislature is an important tenet of representative democracy. In the event of a vacant seat in the Legislature, for instance, a by-election is then conducted to fill the vacant seat. In this vein, Feigert and Norris (1980) define by-elections as an election held to fill a political office that has become vacant between general elections. Winning a by-election is important to the balance of power between the individual caucuses in the legislature. Decision-making in Parliament depends on the minority and majority’s numbers, thus by-elections are always keenly contested.
The return to democratic rule in 1993 means the return of elections, and consequently by-elections have not been an exception. In line with the precedent set in the first parliament of the Fourth Republic of Ghana, every parliament so far has witnessed a by-election. Articles 97 and 112 elaborate on by-elections in Ghana. Article 112 (5) states that “whenever a vacancy occurs in parliament, the clerk to parliament shall notify the Electoral Commission in writing within seven days after the vacancy occurred, and a by-election shall be held within thirty days after the vacancy occurred”. Except that where the vacancy occurred through the death of a member, the by-election shall be held within 60 days after the occurrence of the vacancy.
However, clause 6 of Article 112 states that, “notwithstanding clause 5 of this article, a by-election shall not be held within three months before the holding of a general election”.
This simply means that if a vacancy is created in parliament just three months before a general election, no elections will be held to fill that vacancy. A case in point was the death of the Mfantseman MP, who was killed on 9th October 2020. Hon Ekow Hayford Quansah, who represented the Mfantseman constituency on the ticket of the NPP’s vacancy, was not filled through a by-election. Other situations include the case of Ho West in 1996, Asante Akim North in 2008, Wulensi in 2012, Kwabre West in 2012, and Bawku Central in 2012.
Deductions from the above means that there have been more vacancies in the legislature, but not all have resulted in a by-election. This study focuses on vacancies that have led to a by-election. Thus, it is important to understand the analysis in the context of only vacancies that have led to by-elections under the Fourth Republic of Ghana. For instance, in the first parliament of Ghana, there were 5 vacancies, but only 4 were filled; thus, instead of 5, the first parliament will record 4 by-elections, although 5 vacancies were created. It also means that the operational definition of a vacancy in this study will be one that resulted in a by-election.
Problem statement,
There have been a myriad of studies on elections and by-elections. Extensive emphasis is placed on the violent nature of by-elections in Ghana. Others explore a few violent by-elections. Much attention hasn’t been paid to a comprehensive in-depth analysis of all the by-elections conducted so far in the Fourth Republic of Ghana. This study aims to determine the dynamics of by-elections that have occurred in the country from 1993 to October 2025
Methodology
The research employed the quantitative method. The study collected the results of by-elections conducted in the Fourth Republic from the Electoral Commission of Ghana. These results were computed in SPSS to generate the results and analysis as shown below.
Parliament and by-elections so far under the Fourth Republic of Ghana
Table 1
|
PARLIAMENT |
FREQUENCY |
PERCENTAGE |
|
First |
4 |
11.4% |
|
Second |
2 |
5.7% |
|
Third |
7 |
20.0% |
|
Fourth |
6 |
17.1% |
|
Fifth |
3 |
8.6% |
|
Sixth |
7 |
20.0% |
|
Seven |
1 |
2.9% |
|
Eighth |
3 |
8.6% |
|
Ninth |
2 |
5.7% |
|
TOTAL |
35 |
100% |
Source: Field Data from the Electoral Commission
From table 1 above, the study revealed that the 3rd and 6th Parliaments experienced the highest number of by-elections, 7. This represents 20.7 of the by-elections held in Ghana. The seventh Parliament experienced the least number of by-elections with just 1, which represents 2.9%. That was the Ayawaso West Wuogon by-election, a very notable and violent election that resulted in the enactment of the Vigilantism and Related Offences Act, 2019 (Act 999). The fourth Parliament recorded the second-highest number of elections in the Fourth Republic.
Cause of Vacancy
Table 2
|
CAUSE OF VACANCY |
FREQUENCY |
PERCENTAGE |
|
Death |
26 |
74.3% |
|
Resignation |
7 |
20.0% |
|
Disqualification |
2 |
5.7% |
|
Total |
35 |
100% |
Source: Field Data from the Electoral Commission
According to Table 2, 74.3% of vacancies for by-elections are a result of death; thus, out of the 35 by-elections in Ghana, 26 of them have been as a result of death. 20% of these by-elections are as a result of resignation, while only 2 out of the 35 by-elections are as a result of disqualification.
Gender of the incumbent MP who created the Vacancy
Table 3
|
GENDER OF PREV MP |
FREQUENCY |
PERCENTAGE |
|
Male |
33 |
94.3 |
|
female |
2 |
5.7 |
|
Total |
35 |
100 |
Source: Data from the Electoral Commission
From Table 3, the study reveals that 33 male members of parliament, representing 94.3% have been involved in by-elections. It is only on 2 occasions that women have been involved in by-elections. This represents just 5.7 percent.
PARTY OF THE INCUMBENT MP THAT CREATED THE VACANCY
Table 4
|
PARTY |
FREQUENCY |
PERCENTAGE |
|
NPP |
20 |
57.1% |
|
NDC |
15 |
42.9% |
|
|
35 |
100% |
Source: Data from the Electoral Commission
From table 4, the study revealed that Members of parliament on the ticket of the NPP have experienced more situations of by-elections as a result of either death, resignation, or disqualification, as compared to the NDC. Thus, 20 out of the 35 by-elections experienced in Ghana have been a result of vacancies created by NPP members of Parliament. This represents 57.1 of by-elections. Vacancies created by NDC MPs represent 42.9%, thus, 15 of the by-elections conducted under the Fourth Republic of Ghana. This also corroborates the dominance of the two main political parties in Ghana. Together, both parties have 100% of Members whose constituencies have had to undergo a by-election. All 35 by-elections in the fourth republic are a result of death, resignation or disqualification on the part of an NPP or NDC Member of Parliament.
.
|
CAUSE OF VACANCY * PARTY OF MP Cross tabulation |
||||
|
Table 5 |
||||
|
|
PARTY OF MP |
Total |
||
|
NPP |
NDC |
|||
|
CAUSE OF VACANCY |
DEATH |
15 |
11 |
26 |
|
RESIGNATION |
5 |
2 |
7 |
|
|
DISQUALIFICATION |
1 |
1 |
2 |
|
|
Total |
21 |
14 |
35 |
|
Source: Data from the Electoral Commission.
From Table 5, it is revealed that out of the causes of vacancy in parliament for a by-election, the NPP has experienced 15 deaths, while the NDC has experienced 11 deaths. While 5 of the vacancies have been a result of resignation on the part of the NPP, only 2 seats have become vacant on the side of the NDC as a result of resignation. Both the NPP and NDC have once had their members of Parliament disqualified.
|
GENDER OF MP * CAUSE OF VACANCY Cross tabulation |
|||||
|
Table 6 |
|||||
|
|
CAUSE OF VACANCY |
Total |
|||
|
DEATH |
RESIGNATION |
DISQUALIFICATION |
|||
|
GENDER OF MP |
MALE |
24 |
7 |
2 |
33 |
|
FEMALE |
2 |
0 |
0 |
2 |
|
|
Total |
26 |
7 |
2 |
35 |
|
Source: Data from the Electoral Commission
From Table 6, the study revealed that MPs whose vacancy was as a result of death, who are also males, are 24, while only 2 female MPs have created a vacancy as a result of death. No woman has created a vacancy for a by-election by virtue of a disqualification or resignation. While 7 males have created a vacancy as a result of resignation, another 2 males have created a vacancy as a result of disqualification.
|
|
The party that won the ensuing by-elections
Table 7
|
PARTY |
FREQUENCY |
PERCENTAGE |
|
NPP |
17 |
48.6 |
|
NDC |
16 |
45.7 |
|
CPP |
1 |
2.9 |
|
INDPDNT |
1 |
2.9 |
|
TOTAL |
35 |
100% |
Source: Field Data from the Electoral Commission
From Table 7, the study revealed the NPP has won the most by-elections under the Fourth Republic of Ghana. It won 17 of the 35 by-elections, representing 48.6% of by-elections conducted under the Fourth Republic of Ghana. The NDC has won 16 of the 35, representing 45.7% of the by-elections held under the Fourth Republic of Ghana. The CPP has won 1 by-election, and an independent candidate has also won just 1 by-election, those representing just 2.9% each of the by-elections conducted in the Fourth Republic. This also means that the NPP and the NDC together have won 33 out of the 35 by-elections held in Ghana, which is a representative of 94.3%. This brings to the fore the performance of third parties in the Fourth Republic of Ghana.
Type of Win
Table 8
|
TYPE OF WIN |
FREQUENCY |
PERCENTAGE |
|
Party to Party NPP |
17 |
48.6 |
|
Party to Party NDC |
12 |
34.3 |
|
Swing NPP to NDC |
4 |
11.4 |
|
Swing NDC to NPP |
0 |
0 |
|
Swing to Neither NDC nor NPP |
2 |
5.7 |
|
TOTAL |
35 |
100% |
From table 8, the study revealed that on 17 times an NPP MP has had a vacancy leading to a by-election, an NPP candidate has won the ensuing by-election. That represented 48.6 % of by by-elections conducted in Ghana. 12 times when an NDC MP’s seat became vacant, an NDC MP has won. This represents 34. 3% while the NDC has been on 4 occasions able to annex seats from the NPP, which represents 11.7% of by-elections in Ghana. The NPP has never been able to annex a seat belonging to the NDC in a by-election. This is very profound. It also means that on 29 occasions when a particular party had a vacancy, that same party has gone ahead to win the elections, which is representative of 82.9% of by-elections conducted in the Fourth Republic of Ghana. This also means that the NPP and the NDC together have won 33 out of the 35 by-elections held in Ghana which is a representative of 94.3%.
According to the diagram above, the NDC won 3 of the by-elections in the first parliament. In the second Parliament, both the NDC and NPP won 1 each of the by-elections conducted. The NPP in the 3rd Parliament won all 7 of the by-elections conducted. In the 4th Parliament both the NDC and the NPP won 3 apiece of the by-elections. In the 5th Parliament, while the NDC won just 1, the NPP won 2 of the by-elections conducted. In the 6th Parliament, the NDC won 4 of the 7 by-elections conducted while the NPP won only 2 and the CPP won their only by-election. In the 7th parliament, the NPP won the one and only by-election conducted. In the 8th Parliament, the NPP one 2 while the NDC won 1 of the three by-elections conducted. So far in the 9th Parliament, the NDC has won 2 of the by-elections conducted.
Findings of the study and Discussions.
This study draws attention to a number of issues in relation to by-elections in the Fourth Republic of Ghana. Why is a particular phenomenon by cause of a by-election, why does it involve predominantly a particular gender, and why does it involve predominantly those political parties? These are issues the study brings to the fore for further studies on elections and the health or sustainability of parliamentarians.
Summary of findings
By-elections in Parliament
There have been 35 by-elections upon the return of constitutional rule. Ghana, having a four-year tenure so far, has had 9 parliaments. The first Parliament was between 1992 and 1996. The second parliament was between 1996 and 2000. The third parliament was between 2000 and 2004, the 5th Parliament was between 2000 and 2008. The 6th Parliament was between 2000 and 2012, the 7th Parliament was between 2016 and 2020, the 8th Parliament was from 2020 to 2024 and the current parliament, which is the 9th, will range between 2024 and 2028.
The first parliament witnessed four by-elections, the second witnessed only 2, the 5th Parliament experienced 3, the seventh Parliament just 1, and probably one of the most violent elections in Ayawaso West. The 8th Parliament witnessed three, and the 9th Parliament, which is still in session so far has witnessed 2 by-elections as of 2025. The 3rd and 6th Parliaments of Ghana have experienced the highest number of by-elections. This is 7 by-elections each.
Cause of Vacancies
According to the study, the main cause of vacancies for by-elections is death. The study revealed that 74.3% of vacancies for by-elections are a result of death, thus, out of the 35 by-elections in Ghana, 26 of them have been as a result of death. 20% of these by-elections are a result of resignation, while only 2 out of the 35 by-elections are a result of disqualification.
This brings into question a lot of issues, the challenges of the office, the stress, health, security, etc. Why are most by-elections occurring as a result of death? The last three elections conducted in Ghana are a result of the deaths of sitting members of parliament.
It is also important to note that the resignation of MPs is a very broad category; if an MP receives an appointment that does not allow him to combine both positions, he resigns. For instance, in 2013, Hon. Edward Doe Adjaho resigned from the Akatsi South Seat to become the Speaker of Parliament. Mohammed Ibn Chambas had to resign to take up the appointment as the Executive Secretary of ECOWAS. Hon Eric Amoateng was forced to resign after his arrest over the possession of illicit drugs. However, all these categories are placed under Resignation. In 2006, Prof Wayo Seini crossed carpet from the NDC into the NPP. His seat was declared vacant, and that also is categorised as a resignation. The Kumbugu seat also became vacant after the ECOWAS endorsed Alhaji Mohammed Mumuni as Secretary General of the African Caribbean Pacific (ACP) group of states.
Gender of Previous MPs whose vacancy led to a by-election.
The study also revealed that 94.3% of MPs whose vacancy led to a by-election were males. Thus, 33 out of the 35 by-elections in the Fourth Republic of Ghana have been a result of the death, resignation, or disqualification of a male MP. Only 2 female vacancies in Parliament have led to a by-election. The first-ever by-election in the fourth republic involved the death of Hon. Mary Ghann of New Edubiase constituency, and the second involved Hon. Doris Seidu of Chereponi constituency.
The party that won the ensuing by-elections
The study revealed that the NPP has won the most by-elections under the Fourth Republic of Ghana. It won 17 of the 35 by-elections, representing 48.6% of by-elections conducted under the Fourth Republic of Ghana. The NDC has won 16 of the 35, representing 45.7% of the by-elections held under the Fourth Republic of Ghana. The CPP has won one by-election, and an independent candidate has also won just 1 by-election. This also means that the NPP and the NDC together have won 33 out of the 35 by-elections held in Ghana, which is a representative of 94.3%. This brings to the fore the performance of third parties in the Fourth Republic of Ghana. This is a testament to the dominance of the NPP and the NDC under the Fourth Republic. The third parties have gradually whittled away, leaving the scene for these two parties. In Kumbungu where the CPP won its only by-election, it was also because the NPP boycotted that by-election. The seat was occupied by the NDC Member of Parliament, Alhaji Mohammed Mumuni, who was endorsed for the position of the Executive Secretary of the African Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of states. Hon Amadu Moses Yahaya won the seat for the CPP. The boycott of the seat by the NPP played a significant role. Hon. Amadu won with total valid votes of 13,020, representing 51.8% while his closest contender, Alhaji Imoro Yakubu Kpagu of the NDC, polled 11,896, representing 47.29. It was keenly contested, and the absence of the NPP played a significant role in the annexation of the seat by the CPP.
Type of Win
The study revealed that 17 times an NPP MP has had a vacancy leading to a by-election, an NPP candidate has won the ensuing by-election. That represented 48.6 % of by-elections conducted in Ghana. 12 times when an NDC MP’s seat became vacant, an NDC MP has won. This represents 34. 3% While the NDC has been on 4 occasions able to annex seats from the NPP, which represents 11.7% of by-elections in Ghana. The NPP has never been able to annex a seat belonging to the NDC in a by-election. This is very profound. It also means that on 29 occasions when a particular party had a vacancy, that same party has gone ahead to win the elections, that is representative of 82.9% of by-elections conducted in the Fourth Republic of Ghana. This also means that the NPP and the NDC together have won 33 out of the 35 by-elections held in Ghana, which is a representative of 94.3%.
Parliament and Party that won
The NDC won 3 of the by-elections in the first parliament. In the second Parliament, both the NDC and NPP won 1 each of the bye elections conducted. The NPP in the 3rd Parliament won all 7 of the by-elections conducted. In the 4th Parliament, both the NDC and the NPP won 3 apiece in the bye elections. In the 5th Parliament, while the NDC won just 1, the NPP won 2 of the bye elections conducted. In the 6th Parliament, the NDC won 4 of the 7 by-elections conducted, while the NPP won only 2. In the 7th parliament, the NPP won the only bye-election conducted. In the 8th Parliament, the NPP one 2 while the NDC won 1 of the three by-elections conducted. So far in the 9th Parliament, the NDC has won 2 of the by-elections conducted.
Recommendations
- Further quantitative analysis on the violent nature of by-elections
- Parliamentary processes and procedures can be reinvented in line with the technological changes to make sure legislators have a stress-free schedule
- Implement enhanced security measures for members of Parliament
- The NCCE, EC should sensitize MPs on their mandate and the effects of vote buying. MPs, in their bid to meet the needs of their constituents, sometimes get involved in clandestine activities to finance their projects.
- Periodic review of electoral laws to address challenges with filing and disputes emanating from elections.
Prosper Kwame Nartey (Columnist)
